HANDOUT FOR SEPT. 6 – THE ROMAN EMPIRE S.P.Q.R. = senatus populusque Romanus, "The Senate and the People of Rome"Princeps = "first citizen." First two centuries of Roman empire is commonly called "the Principate."
Imperator = orig. "military commander," eventually "emperor"
Augustus = honorific title given to emperors by Senate, meaning roughly "he who brings prosperity." In later centuries, comes to mean "senior emperor."
Caesar = orig. family name, then a title claimed by emperors. By third century, comes to mean "junior emperor."
Octavian Augustus, 31 BC – 14 AD. First "emperor."
Julio-Claudian family till 68 AD: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero.
68-69 AD: Civil war.
69-98: Flavian dynasty.
98-180: The "Good Emperors." Succession by adoption. Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and finally Marcus Aurelius, the "philosopher emperor," who unwisely leaves the throne to his natural son…
180-192: Commodus (the bad guy from "Gladiator")
192-193: More civil war.
193-235: Severan dynasty.
235-285: Chaos: civil war, assassination, political instability, barbarian invasion. Don’t even try keeping track of emperors!
285-305: Restoration of order under Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (= "rule of four")
For more names, dates and biographical details, try the online encyclopedia at:
The new system: empire divided into four parts. Two senior emperors, called Augusti, and two junior, called Caesares. An "imperial college" system under which senior emperors serve a specified term, retire, and promote younger colleagues to replace them – to guarantee a more stable system of succession. At least, that’s how it’s supposed to work in theory…
The size of government:
In an empire with a probable population of 50 or 60 million…
Under Augustus, maybe 150,000-200,000 in army. Only a few hundred civilian bureaucrats! That is one bureaucrat for every 100,000 people.
By time of Diocletian, maybe 300,000-400,000 in army. Soldiers’ pay consumes about 90% of gov’t budget. Maybe 10,000 civilian bureaucrats. One bureaucrat for every 5,000 people.
In the USA today, one civilian gov’t employee (federal, state and local combined) for every 30 people.